Computer How To Page From Don Brohm
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WHAT IS FDISK /MBR?

Some people routinely advocate using the DOS command FDISK /MBR to remove viruses that infect the hard disk's master boot record sector. However, this may not successfully remove such a virus, and it can be dangerous advice to follow.

FDISK is a DOS program ordinarily used once to partition (divide) the hard disk's space into individual drives for formatting. Once the disk is partitioned and data is stored on the drives, there should be no need to use the FDISK command again. In addition, if it is improperly used, there is a risk of data loss.

When DOS 5.0 was released in 1991, the /MBR switch was added as an option. However, since it might not be safe, Microsoft elected to leave it undocumented (not listed in the manual). Nevertheless, some people discovered that the FDISK /MBR command can be used as if it were a utility tool.

 

BITS, BYTES, KILOBYTES, MEGABYTES, GIGABYTES EXPLAINED

Let's begin with the itty bit (short for binary digit), the tiniest unit of information handled by a PC. Eight bits make up a byte, which typically represents a letter or a digit. You'll see measurements in kilobytes (1,024 bytes), megabytes (1,048,576 bytes) and gigabytes (1,073,741,824 bytes). The more gigabytes of storage a computer has, the better.

In decimal systems, kilo stands for 1,000, but the computer world is based on a binary system of twos instead of tens, so kilo stands for 1,024.

8 BITS = 1 BYTE
1 BYTE = ONE TEXT CHARACTER (it takes 8 bits to send one text character)
1024 BYTES = 1 KILOBYTE (1KB) frequently abbreviated as just K
1024 KB = 1 MEGABYTE (1MB) (1,024 X 1,024 = 1,048,576 bytes, or 1MB)
1024 MB = 1 GIGABYTE (1GB) (1,024 X 1,024 X 1,024 = 1,073,741,824 bytes, or GB)
1024 GB = 1 TERABYTE

Usually, when written out, the following abbreviations apply:

KB = Kilobyte or KBS Kilobytes per second
Modem connections speeds are measured in bps (Bits per second)
For example, a modem connection at 44,000 bps = 5,500 KBS (Kilobytes per second)
So to down load a MB (1024K) at 44,000 bps would take approximately 3 minutes & 7seconds.
at 26,400 bps the same MB would take 5 minutes&11 seconds.

The usual maximum speed of the V.90 56K modem is really 53K download and 33.6K upload.

Modem connect speeds vary widely due to the quality of the phone line, if you are located more than 18,000 cable feet from the telephone co. office, (3 miles or so) and served over plain old copper telephone cables, rarely are connections greater than 26.4K or 28.8K achieved. 
Your reported modem speed, i.e. 26,400 etc, is in Kbps (Kilobits persecond).   When you download and get a message that says something like 2.9, it is in Kilobytes (X 8 =) 23.3 Kilobits.   Rarely will you actual download speed match the carrier or connect speed.

 

Cookies

Some Web sites store information in a small text file, called a "cookie," on your hard disk.

Cookies contain information about you and your preferences. For example, if you inquire about a flight schedule at an airline's Web site, the site might create a cookie that contains your itinerary. Or it might only contain a record of which pages within the site you visited, to help the site customize the view for you the next time you visit.

Only the information that you provide, or the choices you make while visiting a Web site, can be stored in a cookie. For example, the site cannot determine your e-mail name unless you choose to type it. Allowing a Web site to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer, and only the site that created the cookie can read it.

Internet Explorer is set up to allow the creation of cookies; however, you can specify that you be prompted before a site puts a cookie on your hard disk, so you can choose to allow or disallow the cookie; or you can prevent Internet Explorer from accepting any cookies.

You can specify different settings for different security zones. For example, you might want to allow Web sites to create cookies if they are in your Trusted sites or Local intranet zone, prompt you before creating cookies if they are in your Internet zone, and never allow cookies if they are in your Restricted sites zone.

MS Knowledge Base Articles about cookies & MS Internet Explorer:
Q154360 - Information About the Security Alert Message for Cookies in Internet Explorer and Outlook Express 
Q196955 - How to Set and Customize Cookies Settings in Internet Explorer 5 
Q278835 - How to Delete Cookie Files 
Q158769 - Emptying Temporary Internet Files Folder Leaves Cookies Files 

 

Sending & Receiving Faxes from your PC

As sending is the easiest part, I’ll cover that first. Your PC or modem probably came with fax software. When sending a fax, you can fax anything that you can print. After installation of the proper software, sending is usually accomplished just as though you were printing the document. For example, in the application (software) that you wish to fax from within, you would click on “FILE”, “PRINT”! Then in the dialog box that comes up, in the “PRINTER NAME” drop down box, pick your fax sending software driver. At this point, the process will vary depending on your fax sending software.

I use Microsoft FAX software, for sending. It comes with windows 95, and is also on the windows 98 cdrom. Usually MS Fax will need to be installed. By that I mean that MS Fax is normally not part of the normal Windows 95/98 installation.     Microsoft Fax Not Supported on Windows Millennium Edition (Q258689)   WindowsXP comes with it own included FAX software, not always installed by default.  It works fine for sending.    Windows XP-Faxing

You can also receive Faxes using MS Fax. However, it is much easier to receive a Fax, and print it out, if you get it as an attachment to an email message. There is a free service called Efax, which provides you with your own personal Fax phone number, and works very well. (Efax may not work if you are using some of the WEB based email providers such as Juno, I have not tested Efax with AOL)

Very simply, the sender sends to your Efax fax phone number just as they would send a fax to any normal fax machine phone number. You will receive the fax attached to an email message almost instantly. This method of receiving does not require your PC and Modem to be set up to monitor and answer your phone line. Your phone line will not be tied up during the receive process. I have been using Efax for quite some time and have found it to work very effectively. For details on Efax, or to sign up, go to “www.efax.com” Then click on “HELP” for more details on using Efax. The software to make Efax work is also free, and will be sent to you automatically via an email attachment, or you can download and install it.

Be advised, that Efax will try to get you to sign up for “Efax Plus” service which is not free. Also be advised that your Efax phone number will not be a local number. However, as it usually only takes a minute or two to send a fax, and in these days of free or 5¢ a minute long distance, this is not an obstacle either. To keep your free Efax account active, you need to use it once a month.

Other information on using MS Fax:
You should be able to install Microsoft Fax by running the program Awfax.exe, which is on your Windows 98 CD in the folder \Tools\Oldwin95\Message\Us. Windows Messaging and Microsoft Mail Postoffice (WMS.EXE) must be installed prior to installing AWFAX.EXE.  A text file named Wmsfax.txt, in the folder \Tools\Oldwin95\Message, has more information. 

NOTE:  If you have installed Outlook 97, Outlook 98, or Outlook 2000, you may need to uninstall Outlook, install Windows Messaging, and the Fax software, and then reinstall Outlook.  

MS Knowledge Base Articles on this subject are:
Q241284 - INFO Q&A Windows 98 Preinstallation Questions 
Q187549 - Microsoft Fax Does Not Appear in Add-Remove Programs 
How to Install and Use Microsoft Fax (Q152196) 
Microsoft Fax Not Supported on Windows Millennium Edition (Q258689) 
How to Reinstall Microsoft Fax and Windows Messaging (Q235713) 
Microsoft Fax May Not Work When You Install Windows 98 or Office 2000 (Q255848) 
Cannot Print to Microsoft Fax Printer Driver (Q137752) 
Windows XP-Faxing

 

CLUSTER SIZE AS IT RELATES TO FAT-16 VS FAT-32 and NFTS

FAT-32 only available in Windows 95 OSR2 and All versions of Windows 98/ME.  Original release of Windows 95 only supports FAT-16 which limits hard disk partition size to 2-GB.  Many 486 systems only support partitions up to 511MB.  The  Larger Partition size means larger cluster size, and larger clusters mean more wasted disk space. 

FAT PARTITION SIZE

CLUSTER SIZE
IN KB

FAT-16 FAT-32
128MB-255MB 512MB-8GB 4
256MB-511MB 8GB-16GB 8
512MB-1GB 16GB-32GB 16
1GB-2GB UP TO 32GB 32

 

NTFS PARTITION SIZE

CLUSTER SIZE

512MB or less 512 bytes
513MB to 1,024MB (1GB) 1,024 bytes (1K)
1,025MB to 2,048MB (2GB) 2,048 bytes (2K)
2,049 or more 4,096 bytes (4K)

Hard_disk Management from MS Knowledge base
Q255867 - How to Use Fdisk and Format to Partition or Repartition a Hard Disk
 
Q166172 - Duplicating Windows 95-98 Installation to a New Hard Disk 
Q153550 - Hard Disk Limited to 8-GB Partition 
246818 - Windows 95 Does Not Support Hard Disks Larger Than 32 GB
263044 - Fdisk Does Not Recognize Full Size of Hard Disks Larger than 64 GB
314463 - Limitations of the FAT32 File System in Windows XP
309000 - How to use Disk Management to configure basic disks in Windows XP
315688 - How to Locate and Correct Disk Space Problems on NTFS Volumes in Windows XP
File and partition size limitations using the FAT32 file system. From http://support.wdc.com/archive/ KB FAQ's 10/31/07


Maximum Sizes on FAT32 Volumes
A FAT32 volume must have a minimum of 65,527 clusters. Windows XP Professional can format FAT32 volumes up to 32 GB, but it can mount larger FAT32 volumes created by other operating systems. Table 13.6 lists FAT32 size limits.

Table 13.6   FAT32 Size Limits

Description Limit
Maximum file size 4 GB minus 1 byte (232 bytes minus 1 byte)
Maximum volume size 32 GB (implementation)  exception
Files per volume 4,177,920
Maximum number of files and subfolders within a single folder 65,534 (The use of long file names can significantly reduce the number of available files and subfolders within a folder.)

Table 13.5   NTFS Size Limits

Description Limit
Maximum file size Theory: 16 exabytes minus 1 KB (264 bytes minus 1 KB)
Implementation: 16 terabytes minus 64 KB (244 bytes minus 64 KB)
Maximum volume size Theory: 264 clusters minus 1 cluster
Implementation: 256 terabytes minus 64 KB ( 232 clusters minus 1 cluster)
Files per volume 4,294,967,295 (232 minus 1 file)

Size Limitations in NTFS and FAT File Systems

Each file system supports a maximum volume size, file size, and number of files per volume. Because FAT16 and FAT32 volumes are limited to 4 GB and 32 GB respectively, you must use NTFS to create volumes larger than 32 GB. If you use FAT16 or FAT32 in computers that start multiple operating systems, you must note the following size limitations:

  • FAT volumes smaller than 16 MB are formatted as FAT12.
  • FAT16 volumes larger than 2 GB are not accessible from computers running MS-DOS, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows Me, and many other operating systems. This limitation occurs because these operating systems do not support cluster sizes larger than 32 KB, which results in the 2 GB limit.
  • In theory, FAT32 volumes can be about 8 terabytes; however, the maximum FAT32 volume size that Windows XP Professional can format is 32 GB. Therefore, you must use NTFS to format volumes larger than 32 GB. [Exception] However, Windows XP Professional can read and write to larger FAT32 volumes formatted by other operating systems. For example, a drive or partition formated with FDISK..

Maximum Sizes on NTFS Volumes

In theory, the maximum NTFS volume size is 264 clusters minus 1 cluster. However, the maximum NTFS volume size as implemented in Windows XP Professional is 232 clusters minus 1 cluster. For example, using 64-KB clusters, the maximum NTFS volume size is 256 terabytes minus 64 KB. Using the default cluster size of 4 KB, the maximum NTFS volume size is 16 terabytes minus 4 KB.

Because partition tables on master boot record (MBR) disks only support partition sizes up to 2 terabytes, you must use dynamic volumes to create NTFS volumes over 2 terabytes. Windows XP Professional manages dynamic volumes in a special database instead of in the partition table, so dynamic volumes are not subject to the 2-terabyte physical limit imposed by the partition table. Therefore, dynamic NTFS volumes can be as large as the maximum volume size supported by NTFS. Itanium-based computers that use GUID partition table (GPT) disks also support NTFS volumes larger than 2 terabytes.

 

IS YOUR HARD DISK DYING?

(Note:  Clicking on any of the sound WAV files below will play the corresponding 2 second sound clip.  Each clip is 50KB to 60KB in size so give the clip a chance to download.  If play of the sound is jerky the first time, replaying it a second time should help.)

A high-pitched whining sound (bearings.wav) could mean your hard drive's bearings are going bad. Relatively speaking, this is good news; you may actually be able to rescue your soon-to-be-stranded data. If your operating system loads and you're able to move files off the hard disk, do so immediately.

If you hear sustained clicking noises, you probably won't be able to access the hard disk at all, and your operating system most likely won't load. A pause-click, pause-click sound (cycleclick.wav) indicates that your drive's read/write heads are trying to orient themselves. The drive has probably sustained some damage, and you've likely lost some data. Continuous, rapid-fire clicking (excess.wav) is an ominous sound for any drive.

In either case, your chances of recovering your data manually are slim. Don't keep turning your system on and off in hopes that your hard drive will finally catch, or start up, one last time; it won't.

Any grinding or scraping sound (grind.wav) is another sign of serious trouble. Your hard drive's read/write heads are in contact with the disk's media surface--where the data is stored. Shut down your drive immediately; the longer it runs, the more data you may lose.

VIRUS WARNING

A good virus_defense strategy, By Don Brohm:

NOTE OF CAUTION:
ON WINDOWS XP SYSTEMS, WITH NTFS HARD DRIVES, VIRUS REMOVAL CAN BE IMPOSSIBLE, REQUIRING REINSTALLATION OF WINDOWS XP, AND ALL SOFTWARE, TO CLEAN OUT AN INFECTION.

1.  Keep your PC Antivirus software up to date, at least weekly.  Not running antivirus software?  You are asking for trouble!  My recommendation is Norton Antivirus or AVG Antivirus Free Edition

2.  NEVER open attachments that can launch a program or service.  The most common of these, identified by their file extension, [the two or three digits after the "." (period)] are:  .exe, .vbs, .js, .pif, .zip, and .scr files.  NEVER, no mater who they are from, unless you requested the file, or received a prior email or phone call informing you the attachment was coming and what it was.  FOR A MORE COMPLETE LIST OF FILES, BY EXTENSION, THAT CAN CONTAIN HARMFULL INSTRUCTIONS SEE BELOW

3.  Don't use CHAT software, as many viruses/worms spread via chat sessions.

4.  Update windows by going to http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/ at least once a month, run "EXPRESS" and install all "High Priority or Critical Updates".

5.  You should have at least the built in Windows firewall turned on.

6.  If your computers are networked, through a router, also be sure the hardware firewall in the router is turned on.  Usually it is turned on by default.

7.  Also re-evaluate the need to activate file sharing, it is preferable to turn off file sharing.  At a minimum any shares should be individual folders, not complete drives, and should be password protected. 

FILES WITH THE FOLLOWING  EXTENSIONS CAN LAUNCH VIRUSES OR WORMS
Executables: 
---------------------------------------  
.com, .exe, .bat, .cmd
Scripts:
------------------------------------------------  .ws, .wsc, .wsf, .js, .vb, .vbe, .vbs
Other Service Launching Extensions:
---  .pif, .msi, .hta, .scr, zip
 

 

Cures for Common Networking_ Headaches
PC World Oct. 2002
PCWorld.com - Home Net Hassles

A home network that won't work can be very frustrating, but don't give up. Here, courtesy of HomeNetHelp.com's Chris Kaminski and Linksys product support manager Shannon Lehmann, are some basic troubleshooting steps to try when you're faced with three common problems.

I can't see other PCs on the network. Make sure the workgroup name is the same for all networked PCs. For Windows 98, right-click Network Neighborhood (My Network Places in Windows Me), click the Identification tab, and enter the workgroup name. In Windows 2000, right-click My Computer and select Properties, Network, Identification, Properties. Click the Workgroup radio button, and then enter the name. In Windows XP, right-click My Computer, select Properties, Computer Name, and--if the workgroup name needs to be changed--click Change and then select the Workgroup radio button.

My network adapter doesn't work. Make sure you've properly installed the driver. Windows 98 and Me users must have their Windows installation CD-ROMs handy, or know where the installation files (.cab files) reside on the hard drive (Win XP and 2000 users, don't worry about this). All users must know where the driver files are located on the hardware's installation CD-ROM.

I can't get online. This may be a problem with a gateway/router setting. If so, you should be able to fix it via the device's Web-based firmware. Check your manual for the device's default IP address (it will be in the format 192.168.x.x). Launch a browser and then point it to that address.

Setup routines vary from vendor to vendor, but at some point you should be asked whether you have a dynamic IP address (as most residential users do) or a static IP address. If your broadband ISP uses PPPOE software to log you in automatically via a user ID and password, you should be asked to enter those as well.

Some ISPs check to see whether a connection is coming from the device you first used for access; they do this by checking its MAC identifier (a string of numbers and letters unique to a device). If you buy a router after getting broadband, the router will have a different MAC identifier than the ethernet card you probably used to connect from one PC. To bypass this problem, newer routers include a MAC cloning feature that copies the MAC address from the adapter to the router; otherwise, you may have to call your ISP and inform it of your router's MAC identifier (check with the vendor to determine what it is).

You can also try releasing and renewing your PC's IP address. In Windows 98 and Me, click Start, Run, type winipcfg, and click OK. You'll see a window with IP addressing information and a drop-down list of available adapters. Select your adapter, click Release, and then click Renew. At this point, your PC will seek a new IP number from your ISP. In Windows XP, open Network Connections, right-click the adapter that you're using, and then select Status, Support, Repair. In Windows 2000, select Start, Run, type cmd, select OK, type ipconfig /release_all, press Enter, type ipconfig /renew_all, and press Enter.

 

 

PC Stats Home Page

Selected Articles From PC Stats

Beginners Guides Spyware Protection and Removal - PCStats.com &
A Quick Guide for Eliminating Spyware and Hijacker Software - PCStats.com

Beginners Guides Back up and Restore Data in WinXP - PCStats.com
Beginners Guides Browser Hijacking & How to Stop It - PCStats.com
Beginners Guides Cloning WindowsXP - PCStats.com
Beginners Guides Forgotten Passwords & Recovery Methods - PCStats.com
Beginners Guides Installing Windows XP - PCStats.com
Beginners Guides Internet Connection Sharing - PCStats.com
Beginners Guides Making DVD Movies from Video Files - PCStats.com